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by Charles Lyell, Esq., F.R.S.
For Sec. to the Geol. Soc., &c.
© 1990 The University of Chicago
"Amid all the revolutions of the globe the economy of
Nature has been uniform, and her laws are the only things that have
resisted the general movement. The rivers and the rocks, the seas
and the continents have been changed in all their parts; but the laws
which direct those changes, and the rules to which they are subject,
have remained invariably the same." -- PLAYFAIR, Illustrations of the
Huttonian Theory, § 374. Table of
Contents:
-
Volume 1
-
Introduction, by Martin J. S. Rudwick
- Volume 1
- Front
Matter
-
Chapter 1: Geology defined Compared to History Its
relation to other Physical Sciences Its distinctness from all Not to
be confounded with Cosmogony
-
Chapter 2: Oriental Cosmogony Doctrine of the successive
destruction and renovation of the world Origin of this doctrine
Common to the Egpytians Adopted by the Greeks System of Pythagoras
Of Aristotle Dogmas concerning the extinction and reproduction of
genera and species Strabo's theory of elevation by earthquakes Pliny
Concluding remarks on the knowledge of the Ancients
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Chapter 3: Arabian writers of the Tenth century Persecution
of Omar Cosmogony of the Koran Early Italian writers Fracastoro
Controversy as to the real nature of organized fossils Fossil shells
attributed to the Mosaic deluge Palissy Steno Scilla Quirini
Boyle Plot Hooke's Theory of Elevation by earthquakes His
speculations on lost species of animals Ray Physico-theological
writers Woodward's Diluvial Theory Burnet Whiston Hutchinson
Leibnitz Vallisneri Lazzoro Moro Generelli Buffon His theory
condemned by the Sorbonne as unorthodox Buffon's declaration
Targioni Ardinino Michell Catcott Raspe Fortis Testa
Whitehurst Pallas Saussure
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Chapter 4: Werner's application of Geology to the art of
Mining Excursive character of his lectures Enthusiasm of his pupils
His authority His theoretical errors Desmarest's map and
description of Auvergne Controversy between the Vulcanists and
Neptunists Intemperance of the rival Sects Hutton's theory of the
Earth His discovery of granite veins Originality of his views Why
opposed Playfair's illustrations Influence of Voltaire's writings on
Geology Imputations cast on the Huttonians by Williams, Kirwau, and De
Luc Smith's map of England Geological Society of London Progress
of the Science in France Growing importance of the study of organic
remains
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Chapter 5: Review of the causes which have retarded the
progress of Geology Effects of prepossessions in regard to the
duration of past time Of prejudices arising from our peculiar position
as inhabitants of the land Of those occasioned by our not seeing
subterranean changes now in progress All these causes combine to make
the former course of Nature appear different from the present Several
objections to the assumption, that existing causes have produced the
former changes of the earth's surface, removed by modern discoveries
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Chapter 6: Proofs that the climate of the Northern hemisphere
was formerly hotter Direct proofs from the Organic remains of the
Sicilian and Italian strata Proofs from analogy derived from extinct
Quadrupeds Imbedding of Animals in Icebergs Siberian Mammoths
Evidence in regard to temperature, from the fossil remains of tertiary
and secondary rocks From the plants of the coal formation
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Chapter 7: On the causes of vicissitudes in climate Remarks
on the present diffusion of heat over the globe On the dependence of
the mean temperature on the relative position of land and sea
Isothermal lines Currents from equatorial regions Drifting of
Icebergs Different temperature of Northern and Southern hemispheres
Combination of causes which might produce the extreme cold of which the
earth's surface is susceptible On the conditions necessary for the
production of the extreme of heat, and its probable effects on organic
life
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Chapter 8: Geological proofs that the geographical features of
the northern hemisphere, at the period of the deposition of the
carboniferous strata, were such as would, according to the theory before
explained, give rise to an extremely hot climate Origin of the
transition and mountain limestones, coal-sandstones, and coal Change
in the physical geography of northern latitudes, between the era of the
formation of the carboniferous series and the lias Character of
organic remains, from the lias to the chalk inclusive State of the
surface when these deposits originated Great accession of land, and
elevation of mountain-chains, between the consolidation of the newer
secondary and older tertiary rocks Consequent refrigeration of climate
Abrupt transition from the organic remains of the secondary to those
of the tertiary strata Maestricht beds Remarks on the theory of the
diminution of central heat
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Chapter 9: Theory of the progressive development of organic life
considered Evidence in its support wholly inconclusive Vertebrated
animals in the oldest strata Differences between the organic remains
of successive formations Remarks on the comparatively modern origin of
the human race The popular doctrine of successive development not
confirmed by the admission that man is of modern origin In what manner
the change in the system caused by the introduction of man affects the
assumption of the uniformity of the past and future course of physical
events
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Chapter 10: Division of the subject into changes of the
organic and inorganic world Inorganic causes of change divided into
the aqueous and igneous Aqueous causes Destroying and transporting
power of running water Sinuosities of rivers Two streams when united
do not occupy a bed of double surface Heavy matter removed by torrents
and floods Recent inundations in Scotland Effects of ice in removing
stones Erosion of chasms through hard rocks Excavations in the lavas
of Etna by Sicilian rivers Gorge of the Simeto Gradual recession of
the cataracts of Niagara Speculations as to the time required for
their reaching Lake Erie
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Chapter 11: Action of running water, continued Course of the
Po Desertion of its old channel Artificial embankments of the Po,
Adige, and other Italian rivers Basin of the Mississippi Its
meanders Islands Shifting of its course Raft of the Atchafalaya
Drift wood New-formed lakes in Louisiana Earthquakes in the valley
of the Mississippi Floods caused by landslips in the White mountains
Bursting of a lake in Switzerland Devastations caused by the Anio at
Tivoli
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Chapter 12: Difference between the transporting power of
springs and rivers Many springs carry matter from below upwards
Mineral ingredients most abundant in springs Connexion of mineral
waters with volcanic phenomena Calcareous springs Travertin of the
Elsa Baths of San Vignone, and of San Filippo, near Radicofani
Spheroidal structure in travertin, as in English magnesian limestone
Bulicami of Viterbo Lake of the Solfatara, near Rome Travertin at
Cascade of Tivoli Ferruginous springs Cementing and colouring
property of iron Brine springs Carbonated springs Disintegration
of Auvergne granite Caverns in limestone Petroleum springs Pitch
lake of Trinidad
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Chapter 13: Reproductive effects of running water Division
of deltas into lacustrine, mediterranean, and oceanic Lake deltas
Growth of the delta of the Rhone in the Lake of Geneva Chronological
computations of the age of deltas Recent deposits in Lake Superior
Deltas of inland seas Rapid shallowing of the Baltic Arguments for
and against the hypothesis of Celsius Elevated beaches on the coast of
Sweden Marine delta of the Rhone Various proofs of its increase
Stony nature of its deposits Delta of the Po, Adige, Isonzo, and other
rivers entering the Adriatic Rapid conversion of that gulf into land
Mineral characters of the new deposits Delta of the Nile Its
increase since the time of Homer Its growth why checked at present
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Chapter 14: Oceanic deltas Delta of the Ganges and
Burrampooter Its size, rate of advance, and nature of its deposits
Formation and destruction of islands Abundance of crocodiles
Inundations Delta of the Mississippi Deposits of drift wood
Gradual filling up of the Yellow Sea Rennell's estimate of the mud
carried down by the Ganges Formation of valleys illustrated by the
growth of deltas Grouping of new strata in general Convergence of
deltas Conglomerates Various causes of stratification Direction of
laminae Remarks on the interchange of land and sea
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Chapter 15: Destroying and transporting effects of Tides and
Currents Shifting of their position Differences in the rise of the
tides Causes of currents Action of the sea on the British coast
Shetland Islands Large blocks removed Effects of lightning Breach
caused in a mass of porphyry Isles reduced to clusters of rocks
Orkney Isles East coast of Scotland Stones thrown up on the Bell
Rock East coast of England Waste of the cliffs of Holderness,
Norfolk, and Suffolk Silting up of Estuaries Origin of submarine
forests Yarmouth estuary Submarine forests Suffolk coast Dunwich
Essex coast Estuary of the Thames Goodwin Sands Coast of Kent
Formation of Straits of Dover Coast of Hants Coast of Dorset
Portland Origin of the Chesel Bank Cornwall Lionnesse tradition
Coast of Brittany
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Chapter 16: Action of Tides and Currents, continued Inroads
of the sea upon the delta of the Rhine in Holland Changes in the arms
of the Rhine Estuary of the Bies Bosch, formed in 1421 Formation of
the Zuyder Zee, in the 13th century Islands destroyed Delta of the
Ems converted into a bay Estuary of the Dollart formed Encroachment
of the sea on the coast of Sleswick Inroads on the eastern shores of
North America Tidal wave called the Bore Influence of tides and
currents on the mean level of seas Action of currents on inland lakes
and seas Baltic Cimbrian deluge Straits of Gibraltar Under
currents Shores of Mediterranean Rocks transported on floating
icebergs Dunes of blown sand Sands of the Libyan Desert De Luc's
natural chronometers
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Chapter 17: Reproductive effects of Tides and Currents
Silting up of Estuaries does not compensate the loss of land on the
borders of the ocean Bed of the German Ocean Composition and extent
of its sand-banks Strata formed by currents on the southern and
eastern shores of the Mediterranean Transportation by currents of the
sediment of the Amazon, Orinoco, and Mississippi Stratification
Concluding remarks
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Chapter 18: Division of igneous agents into the volcano and
the earthquake Distinct regions of subterranean disturbance Region
of the Andes System of volcanos extending from the Aleutian Isles to
the Moluccas Polynesian archipelago Volcanic region extending from
the Caspian Sea to the Azores Former connexion of the Caspian with
Lake Aral and the Sea of Azof Low steppes skirting these seas
Tradition of deluges on the shores of the Bosphorus, Hellespont, and the
Grecian archipelago Periodical alternation of earthquakes in Syria and
Southern Italy Western limits of the European region Earthquakes
rarer and more feeble in proportion as we recede from the centres of
volcanic action Extinct volcanos not to be included in lines of active
vents
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Chapter 19: History of the volcanic eruptions in the district
round Naples Early convulsions in the island of Ischia Numerous
cones thrown up there Epomeo not an habitual volcano Lake Avernus
The Solfatara Renewal of the eruptions of Vesuvius A.D. 79 Pliny's
description of the phenomena Remarks on his silence respecting the
destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii Subsequent history of Vesuvius
Lava discharged in Ischia in 1302 Pause in the eruptions of Vesuvius
Monte Nuovo thrown up Uniformity of the volcanic operations of
Vesuvius and the Phlegraean Fields in ancient and modern times
- Chapter
20:
Dimensions and structure of
the cone of Vesuvius Dikes in the recent cone, how formed Section
through Vesuvius and Somma Vesuvian lavas and minerals Effects of
decomposition of lava Alluvions called "aqueous lavas" Origin and
composition of the matter enveloping Herculaneum and Pompeii
Controversies on the subject Condition and contents of the buried
cities Proofs of their having suffered by an earthquake Small number
of skeletons State of preservation of animal and vegetable substances
Rolls of Papyrus Probability of future discoveries of MSS. Stabiae
Torre del Greco Concluding remarks on the destroying and renovating
agency of the Campanian volcanos
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Chapter 21: External physiognomy of Etna Minor cones
produced by lateral eruptions Successive obliteration of these cones
Early eruptions of Etna Monti Rossi thrown up in 1669 Great fissure
of S. Lio Towns overflowed by lava Part of Catania destroyed Mode
of the advance of a current of lava Excavation of a church under lava
Series of subterranean caverns Linear direction of cones formed in
1811 and 1819 Flood produced in 1755 by the melting of snow during an
eruption A glacier covered by a lava stream on Etna Volcanic
eruptions in Iceland New island thrown up in 1783 Two lava-currents
of Skaptαr Jokul in the same year Their immense volume Eruption of
Jorullo in Mexico Humboldt's Theory respecting the convexity of the
Plain of Malpais
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Chapter 22: Volcanic Archipelagos The Canaries Eruptions
of the Peak of Teneriffe Cones thrown up in Lancerote in 1730-36
Pretended distinction between ancient and modern lavas Recent
formation of oolitic travertine in Lancerote Grecian Archipelago
Santorin and its contiguous isles Von Buch's Theory of "Elevation
Craters" considered New islands thrown up in the Gulf of Santorin
Supposed "Crater of Elevation" in the Isle of Palma Description of the
Caldera of Palma Barren island in the Bay of Bengal Origin of the
deep gorge on the side of "Elevation Craters" Stratification of
submarine volcanic products Causes of the great size of the craters of
submarine volcanos Cone of Somma, formed in the same manner as that of
Vesuvius Mineral composition of volcanic products Speculations
respecting the nature of igneous rocks produced at great depths, by
modern volcanic eruptions
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Chapter 23: Earthquakes and their effects Deficiency of
ancient accounts Ordinary atmospheric phenomena Changes produced by
earthquakes in modern times considered in chronological order
Earthquake in Murcia, 1829 Bogota in 1827 Chile in 1822 Great
extent of country elevated Aleppo in 1822 Ionian Isles in 1820
Island of Sumbawa in 1815 Town of Tomboro submerged Earthquake of
Cutch in 1819 Subsidence of the delta of the Indus Earthquake of
Caraccas in 1812 South Carolina in 1811 Geographical changes in the
valley of the Mississippi Volcanic convulsions in the Aleutian Islands
in 1806 Reflections on the earthquakes of the eighteenth century
Earthquake in Quito, 1797 Cumana, 1797 Caraccas, 1790 Sicily, 1790
Java, 1786 Sinking down of large tracts
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Chapter 24: Earthquake in Calabria, February 5th, 1783
Shocks continued to the end of the year 1786 Authorities Extent of
the area convulsed Geological structure of the district Difficulty
of ascertaining changes of relative level even on the sea-coast
Subsidence of the quay at Messina Shift or fault in the Round Tower of
Terranuova Movement in the stones of two obelisks Alternate opening
and closing of fissures Cause of this phenomenon Large edifices
engulphed Dimensions of new caverns and fissures Gradual closing in
of rents Bounding of detached masses into the air Landslips
Buildings transported entire, to great distances Formation of fifty
new lakes Currents of mud Small funnel-shaped hollows in alluvial
plains Fall of cliffs along the sea-coast Shore near Scilla
inundated State of Stromboli and Etna during the shocks Illustration
afforded by this earthquake of the mode in which valleys are formed
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Chapter 25: Earthquakes of the eighteenth century, continued
Java, 1772 Truncation of a lofty cone Caucasus, 1772 Java, 1771
Colombia, 1766 Chile, 1760 Azores, 1757 Lisbon, 1755 Sinking
down of the quay to the depth of six hundred feet Shocks felt
throughout Europe, Northern Africa, and the West Indies Great wave
Shocks felt at sea St. Domingo, 1751 Conception Bay, 1750
Permanent elevation of the bed of the sea to the height of twenty-four
feet Peru, 1746 Kamtschatka, 1737 Martinique, 1727. Iceland, 1725
Teneriffe, 1706 Java, 1699 Landslips obstruct the Batas vian and
Tangaran rivers Quito, 1698 Sicily, 1693 Subsidence of land
Moluccas,1693 Jamaica,1692 Large tracts engulphed Portion of Port
Royal sunk from twenty to fifty feet under water The Blue Mountains
shattered Reflections on the amount of change in the last one hundred
and forty years Proofs of elevation and subsidence of land on the
coast of the Bay of Baise Evidence of the same afforded by the present
state of the Temple of Serapis
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Chapter 26: Magnitude of the subterranean changes produced by
earthquakes at great depths below the surface Obscurity of geological
phenomena no proof of want of uniformity in the system, because
subterranean processes are but little understood Reasons for presuming
the earthquake and volcano to have a common origin Probable analogy
between the agency of steam in the Icelandic geysers, and in volcanos
during eruptions Effects of hydrostatic pressure of high columns of
lava Of the condensation of vapours in the interior of the earth
That some earthquakes may be abortive eruptions Why all volcanos are
in islands or maritime tracts Gases evolved from volcanos Regular
discharge of heat and of gaseous and earthy matter from the subterranean
regions Cause of the wave-like motion and of the retreat of the sea
during earthquakes Difference of circumstances of heat and pressure at
great depths Inferences from the superficial changes brought about by
earthquakes In what matter the repair of land destroyed by aqueous
causes takes place Proofs that the sinking in of the earth's crust
somewhat exceeds the forcing out by earthquakes Geological
consequences of this hypothesis, that there is no ground for presuming
that the degree of force exerted by subterranean movements in a given
time has diminished Concluding remarks
- Index
(Part 1)
-
Index (Part 2)
Table of
Contents:
- Volume 2
- Front
Matter
-
Chapter 1: Changes of the Organic World now in progress
Division of the Subject Examination of the question, Whether Species
have a real existence in Nature? Importance of this question in
Geology Sketch of Lamarck's arguments in favour of the Transmutation
of Species, and his conjectures respecting the Origin of existing
Animals and Plants His Theory of the transformation of the Orang
Outang into the Human Species
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Chapter 2: Recapitulation of the arguments in favour of the
theory of transmutation of species Their insufficiency The
difficulty of discriminating species mainly attributable to a defective
knowledge of their history Some mere varieties possibly more distinct
than certain individuals of distinct species Variability in a species
consistent with a belief that the limits of deviation are fixed No
facts of transmutation authenticated Varieties of the Dog The Dog
and Wolf distinct Species Mummies of various animals from Egypt
identical in character with living individuals Seeds and plants from
the Egyptian tombs Modifications produced in plants by agriculture and
gardening
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Chapter 3: Variability of a species compared to that of an
individual Species which are susceptible of modification may be
altered greatly in a short time, and in a few generations; after which
they remain stationary The animals now subject to man had originally
an aptitude to domesticity Acquired peculiarities which become
hereditary have a close connexion with the habits or instincts of the
species in a wild state Some qualities in certain animals have been
conferred with a view of their relation to man Wild elephant
domesticated in a few years, but its faculties incapable of further
development
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Chapter 4: Consideration of the question whether species have
a real existence in nature, continued Phenomena of hybrids Hunter's
opinions as to mule animals Mules not strictly intermediate between
the parent species Hybrid plants Experiments of Kφlreuter The same
repeated by Wiegmann Vegetable hybrids prolific throughout several
generations Why so rare in a wild state Decandolle's opinion
respecting hybrid plants The phenomena of hybrids confirms the
doctrine of the permanent distinctness of species Theory of the
gradation in the intelligence of animals as indicated by the facial
angle Discovery of Tieddemann that the brain of the foetus in mammalia
assumes successively the form of the brain of a fish, reptile, and bird
Bearing of this discovery on the theory of progressive development and
transmutation Recapitulation
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Chapter 5: Laws which regulate the geographical distribution
of species Analogy of climate not attended with identity of species
Botanical geography Stations Habitations Distinct provinces of
indigenous plants Vegetation of islands Marine vegetation In what
manner plants become diffused Effects of wind, rivers, marine currents
Agency of animals Many seeds pass through the stomachs of animals
and birds undigested Agency of man in the dispersion of plants, both
voluntary and involuntary Its analogy to that of the inferior animals
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Chapter 6: Geographical distribution of Animals Buffon on
the specific distinctness of the quadrupeds of the old and new world
Different regions of indigenous mammalia Quadrupeds in islands Range
of the Cetacea Dissemination of quadrupeds Their powers of swimming
Migratory instincts Drifting of quadrupeds on ice-floes On
floating islands of drift-timber Migrations of Cetacea Habitations
of Birds Their migrations and facilities of diffusion Distribution
of Reptiles and their powers of dissemination
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Chapter 7: Geographical distribution and migrations of fish
Of testacea Causes which limit the extension of many species Their
mode of diffusion Geographical range of zoophytes Their powers of
dissemination Distribution of insects Migratory instincts of some
species Certain types characterize particular countries Their means
of dissemination Geographical distribution and diffusion of man
Speculations as to the birth-place of the human species Progress of
human population Drifting of canoes to vast distances On the
involuntary influence of man in extending the range of many other
species
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Chapter 8: Theories respecting the original introduction of
species Proposal of an hypothesis on this subject Supposed centres
or foci of creation Why the distinct provinces of animals and plants
have not become more blended together Brocchi's speculations on the
loss of species Stations of plants and animals Complication of
causes on which they depend Stations of plants, how affected by
animals Equilibrium in the number of Species, how preserved Peculiar
efficacy of insects in this task Rapidity with which certain insects
multiply, or decrease in numbers Effect of omnivorous animals in
preserving the equilibrium of species Reciprocal influence of aquatic
and terrestrial species on each other
-
Chapter 9: The circumstances which constitute the Stations of
Animals are changeable Extension of the range of one species alters
the condition of others Supposed effects which may have followed the
first entrance of the Polar Bears into Iceland The first appearance of
a new species in a region causes the chief disturbance Changes known
to have resulted from the advance of human population Whether man
increases the productive powers of the earth Indigenous Quadrupeds and
Birds of Great Britain known to have been extirpated Extinction of the
Dodo Rapid propagation of the domestic Quadrupeds over the American
Continent Power of exterminating species no prerogative of Man
Concluding Remarks
-
Chapter 10: Influence of inorganic causes in changing the
habitations of species Powers of diffusion indispensable, that each
species may maintain its ground How changes in the physical geography
affect the distribution of species Rate of the change of species
cannot be uniform, however regular the action of the inorganic causes
Illustration derived from subsidences by earthquakes From the
elevation of land by the same From the formation of new islands From
the wearing through of an isthmus Each change in the physical
geography of large regions must occasion the extinction of species
Effects of a general alteration of climate on the migration of species
Gradual refrigeration causes species in the northern and southern
hemispheres to become distinct Elevation of temperature the reverse
Effects in the distribution of species which must result from
vicissitudes in climate inconsistent with the theory of transmutation
-
Chapter 11: Theory of the successive extinction of species
consistent with their limited geographical distribution The
discordance in the opinions of botanists respecting the centres from
which plants have been diffused may arise from changes in physical
geography subsequent to the origin of living species Whether there are
grounds for inferring that the loss from time to time of certain animals
and plants is compensated by the introduction of new species? Whether
any evidence of such new creations could be expected within the
historical era, even if they had been as frequent as cases of
extinction? The question whether the existing species have been
created in succession can only be decided by reference to geological
monuments
-
Chapter 12: Effects produced by the powers of vitality on the
state of the earth's surface Modifications in physical geography
caused by organic beings on dry land inferior to those caused in the
subaqueous regions Why the vegetable soil does not augment in
thickness Organic matter drifted annually to the sea, and buried in
subaqueous strata Loss of nourishment from this source, how supplied
The theory, that vegetation is an antagonist power counterbalancing the
degradation caused by running water, untenable That the igneous causes
are the true antagonist powers, and not the action of animal and
vegetable life Conservative influence of vegetation Its bearing on
the theory of the formation of valleys, and on the age of the cones of
certain extinct volcanos Rain diminished by the felling of forests
Distribution of the American forests dependent on the direction of the
predominant winds Influence of man in modifying the physical geography
of the globe
-
Chapter 13: Effects produced by the action of animal and
vegetable life on the material constituents of the earth's crust
Imbedding of organic remains in deposits on emerged land Growth of
Peat Peat abundant in cold and humid climates Site of many ancient
forests in Europe now occupied by Peat Recent date of many of these
changes Sources of Bog iron-ore Preservation of animal substances in
Peat Causes of its antiseptic property Miring of quadrupeds
Bursting of the Solway Moss Bones of herbivorous quadrupeds found in
Peat Imbedding of animal remains in Caves and Fissures Formation of
bony breccias Human bones and pottery intermixed with the remains of
extinct quadrupeds in caves in the South of France Inferences
deducible from such associations
-
Chapter 14: Imbedding of organic remains in alluvium and the
ruins caused by landslips Effects of sudden inundations Of landslips
Terrestrial animals most abundantly preserved in alluvium and
landslips, where earthquakes prevail Erroneous theories which may
arise from overlooking this circumstance On the remains of works of
art included in alluvial deposits Imbedding of organic bodies and
human remains in blown sand Temple of Ipsambul on the Nile Dried
carcasses of animals buried in the sands of the African deserts Towns
overwhelmed by sand-floods in England and France Imbedding of organic
bodies and works of art in volcanic formations on the land Cities and
their inhabitants buried by showers of ejected matter by lava In
tuffs or mud composed of volcanic sand and ashes
-
Chapter 15: Imbedding of organic remains in subaqueous
deposits Division of the subject Phenomena relating to terrestrial
animals and plants first considered Wood sunk to a great depth in the
sea instantly impregnated with salt-water Experiments of Scoresby
Drift timber carried by the Mackenzie into Slave Lake and into the sea
Cause of the abundance of drift timber in this river Floating trees in
the Mississippi In the Gulf stream Immense quantity thrown upon the
coast of Iceland, Spitzbergen, and Labrador Imbedding of the remains
of insects Of the remains of reptiles Why the bones of birds are so
rare in subaqueous deposits Imbedding of terrestrial quadrupeds
Effects of a flood in the Solway Firth Wild horses annually drowned in
the savannahs of South America Skeletons in recent shell marl
Drifting of mammiferous and other remains by tides and currents
-
Chapter 16: Imbedding of the remains of man and his works in
subaqueous strata Drifting of bodies to the sea by river-inundations
Destruction of bridges and houses Burial of human bodies in the sea
Loss of lives by shipwreck Circumstances under which human corpses may
be preserved under a great thickness of recent deposits Number of
wrecked vessels Durable character of many of their contents Examples
of fossil skeletons of men Of fossil canoes, ships, and works of art
Of the chemical changes which certain metallic instruments have
undergone after long submergence Effects of the subsidence of land in
imbedding cities and forests in subaqueous strata Earthquake of Cutch
in 1819 Submarine forests Berkely's arguments for the recent date of
the creation of man Concluding remarks
-
Chapter 17: Imbedding of aquatic species in subaqueous strata
Inhumation of freshwater plants and animals Shell marl Fossilized
seed-vessels and stems of Chara Recent deposits in the American lakes
Fresh-water species drifted into seas and estuaries Lewes levels
Alternations of marine and freshwater strata, how caused Imbedding of
marine plants and animals Cetacea stranded on our shores Their
remains should be more conspicuous in marine alluvium than the bones of
land quadrupeds Liability of littoral and estuary testacea to be swept
into the deep sea Effects of a storm in the Frith of Forth Burrowing
shells secured from the ordinary action of waves and currents Living
testacea found at considerable depths
-
Chapter 18: Formation of coral reefs They are composed of
shells as well as corals Conversion of a submerged reef into an island
Extent and thickness of coral formations The Maldiva isles Growth
of coral not rapid Its geological importance Circular and oval forms
of coral islands Shape of their lagoons Causes of their peculiar
configuration Openings into the lagoons Why the windward side both
in islands and submerged reefs is higher than the leeward
Stratification of coral formations Extent of some reefs in the Pacific
That the subsidence by earthquakes in the Pacific exceeds the
elevation due to the same cause Elizabeth, or Henderson's Island
Coral and shell limestones now in progress, exceed in area any known
group of ancient rocks The theory that all limestone is of animal
origin, considered The hypothesis that the quantity of calcareous
matter has been and is still on the increase, controverted
-
Description of the Plates and Map
-
Index
Table of
Contents:
- Volume 3
- Front
Matter
-
Chapter 1: Connexion between the subjects treated of in the
former parts of this work and those to be discussed in the present
volume Erroneous assumption of the earlier geologists respecting the
discordance of the former and actual causes of change Opposite system
of inquiry adopted in this work Illustrations from the history of the
progress of Geology of the respective merits of the two systems Habit
of indulging conjectures respecting irregular and extraordinary agents
not yet abandoned Necessity in the present state of science of
prefixing to a work on Geology treatises respecting the changes now in
progress in the animate and inanimate world
-
Chapter 2: Arrangement of the materials composing the earth's
crust The existing continents chiefly composed of subaqueous deposits
Distinction between sedimentary and volcanic rocks Between primary,
secondary, and tertiary Origin of the primary Transition formations
Difference between secondary and tertiary strata Discovery of
tertiary groups of successive periods Paris basin London and
Hampshire basins Tertiary strata of Bordeaux, Piedmont, Touraine, &c.
Subapennine beds English crag More recent deposits of Sicily, &c.
-
Chapter 3: Different circumstances under which the secondary
and tertiary formations may have originated Secondary series formed
when the ocean prevailed: Tertiary during the conversion of sea into
land, and the growth of a continent Origin of interruption in the
sequence of formations The areas where new deposits take place are
always varying Causes which occasion this transference of the places
of sedimentary deposition Denudation augments the discordance in age
of rocks in contact Unconformability of overlying formations In what
manner the shifting of the areas of sedimentary deposition may combine
with the gradual extinction and introduction of species to produce a
series of deposits having distinct mineral and organic characters
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Chapter 4: Chronological relations of mineral masses the first
object in geological classification Superposition, proof of more
recent origin Exceptions in regard to volcanic rocks Relative age
proved by included fragments of older rocks Proofs of contemporaneous
origin derived from mineral characters Variations to which these
characters are liable Recurrence of distinct rocks at successive
periods Proofs of contemporaneous origin derived from organic remains
Zoological provinces are of limited extent, yet spread over wider
areas than homogeneous mineral deposits Different modes whereby
dissimilar mineral masses and distinct groups of species may be proved
to have been contemporaneous
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Chapter 5: Classification of tertiary formations in
chronological order Comparative value of different classes of organic
remains Fossil remains of testacea the most important Necessity of
accurately determining species Tables of shells by M. Deshayes Four
subdivisions of the Tertiary epoch Recent formations Newer Pliocene
period Older Pliocene period Miocene period Eocene period The
distinct zoological characters of these periods may not imply sudden
changes in the animate creation The recent strata form a common point
of departure in distant regions Numerical proportion of recent species
of shells in different tertiary periods Mammiferous remains of the
successive tertiary eras Synoptical Table of Recent and Tertiary
formations
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Chapter 6: Newer Pliocene formations Reasons for considering
in the first place the more modern periods Geological structure of
Sicily Formations of the Val di Noto of newer Pliocene period
Divisible into three groups Great limestone Schistose and arenaceous
limestone Blue marl with shells Strata subjacent to the above
Volcanic rocks of the Val di Noto Dikes Tuffs and Peperinos
Volcanic conglomerates Proofs of long intervals between volcanic
eruptions Dip and direction of newer Pliocene strata of Sicily
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Chapter 7: Marine and volcanic formations at the base of Etna
Their connexion with the strata of the Val di Noto Bay of Trezza
Cyclopian isles Fossil shells of recent species Basalt and altered
rocks in the Isle of Cyclops Submarine lavas of the bay of Trezza not
currents from Etna Internal structure of the cone of Etna Val di
Calanna Val del Bove not an ancient crater Its precipices
intersected by countless dikes Scenery of the Val del Bove Form,
composition, and origin of the dikes Lavas and breccias intersected by
them
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Chapter 8: Speculations on the origin of the Val del Bove on
Etna Subsidences Antiquity of the cone of Etna Mode of computing
the age of volcanos Their growth analogous to that of exogenous trees
Period required for the production of the lateral cones of Etna
Whether signs of Diluvial Waves are observable on Etna
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Chapter 9: Origin of the newer Pliocene strata of Sicily
Growth of submarine formations gradual Rise of the same above the
level of the sea probably caused by subterranean lava Igneous newer
Pliocene rocks formed at great depths, exceed in volume the lavas of
Etna Probable structure of these recent subterranean rocks Changes
which they may have superinduced upon strata in contact Alterations of
the surface during and since the emergence of the newer Pliocene strata
Forms of the Sicilian valleys Sea cliffs Proofs of successive
elevation Why the valleys in the newer Pliocene districts correspond
in form to those in regions of higher antiquity Migrations of animals
and plants since the emergence of the newer Pliocene strata Some
species older than the stations they inhabit Recapitulation
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Chapter 10: Tertiary formations of Campania Comparison of
the recorded changes in this region with those commemorated by
geological monuments Differences in the composition of Somma and
Vesuvius Dikes of Somma, their origin Cause of the parallelism of
their opposite sides Why coarser grained in the centre Minor cones
of the Phlegraean Fields Age of the volcanic and associated rocks of
Campania Organic remains External configuration of the country, how
produced No signs of diluvial waves Marine Newer Pliocene strata
visible only in countries of earthquakes Illustrations from Chili
Peru Parallel roads of Coquirnbo West-Indian archipelago Honduras
East-Indian archipelago Red Sea
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Chapter 11: Newer Pliocene fresh water formations Valley
of the Elsa Travertins of Rome Osseous breccias Sicily Caves
near Palermo Extinct animals in newer Pliocene breccias Fossil bones
of Marsupial animals in Australian caves Formation of osseous breccias
in the Mores Newer Pliocene alluviums Difference between alluviums
and regular subaqueous strata The former of various ages Marine
alluvium Grooved surface of rocks Erratic blocks of the Alps
Theory of deluges caused by paroxysmal elevations untenable How ice
may have contributed to transport large blocks from the Alps European
alluviums chiefly tertiary Newer Pliocene in Sicily Loss of the
Valley of the Rhine Its origin Contains recent shells
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Chapter 12: Geological monuments of the older Pliocene period
Subapennine formations Opinions of Brocchi Different groups termed
by him Subapennine are not all of the same age Mineral composition of
the Subapennine formations Marls Yellow sand and gravel
Subapennine beds how formed Illustration derived from the Upper Val
d'Arno Organic remains of Subapennine hills Older Pliocene strata at
the base of the Maritime Alps Genoa Savona Albenga Nice
Conglomerate of Valley of Magnan Its origin Tertiary strata at the
eastern extremity of the Pyrenees
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Chapter 13: Crag of Norfolk and Suffolk Shown by its fossil
contents to belong to the older Pliocene period Heterogeneous in its
composition Superincumbent lacustrine deposits Relative position of
the crag Forms of stratification Strata composed of groups of
oblique layers Cause of this arrangement Dislocations in the crag
produced by subterranean movements Protruded masses of chalk Passage
of marine crag into alluvium Recent shells in a deposit at Sheppey,
Ramsgate, and Brighton
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Chapter 14: Volcanic rocks of the older Pliocene period
Italy Volcanic region of Olot in Catalonia Its extent and geological
structure Map Number of cones Scoriae Lava currents Ravines in
the latter cut by water Ancient alluvium underlying lava Jets of air
called 'Bufadors' Age of the Catalonian volcanos uncertain
Earthquake which destroyed Olot in 1421 Sardinian volcanos District
of the Eifel and Lower Rhine Map Geological structure of the country
Peculiar characteristics of the Eifel volcanos Lake craters Trass
Crater of the Roderberg Age of the Eifel volcanic rocks uncertain
Brown coal formation
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Chapter 15: Miocene period Marine formations Faluns of
Touraine Comparison of the Faluns of the Loire and the English Crag
Basin of the Gironde and Landes Fresh-water limestone of Saucats
Position of the limestone of Blaye Eocene strata in the Bordeaux basin
Inland cliff near Dax Strata of Piedmont Superga Valley of the
Bormida Molasse of Switzerland Basin of Vienna Styria Hungary
Volhynia and Podolia Montpellier
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Chapter 16: Miocene alluviums Auvergne Mont Perrier
Extinct quadrupeds Velay Orleanais Alluviums contemporaneous with
Faluns of Touraine Miocene fresh water formations Upper Val
d'Arno Extinct mammalia Coal of Cadibona Miocene volcanic rocks
Hungary Transylvania Styria Auvergne Velay
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Chapter 17: Eocene period Fresh-water formations Central
France Map Limagne d'Auvergne Sandstone and conglomerate
Tertiary Red marl and sandstone like the secondary 'new red sandstone'
Green and white foliated marls Indusial limestone Gypseous marls
General arrangement and origin of the Travertin Fresh-water formation
of the Limagne Puy en Velay Analogy of the strata to those of
Auvergne Cantal Resemblance of Aurillac limestone and its flints to
our upper chalk Proofs of the gradual deposition of marl Concluding
remarks
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Chapter 18: Marine formations of the Eocene period Strata of
the Paris basin how far analogous to the lacustrine deposits of Central
France Geographical connexion of the Limagne d'Auvergne and the Paris
basin Chain of lakes in the Eocene period Classification of groups
in the Paris basin Observations of M. C. Prevost Sketch of the
different subdivisions of the Paris basin Contemporaneous marine and
fresh-water strata Abundance of Cerithia in the Calcaire grossier
Upper marine formation indicates a subsidence Part of the Calcaire
grossier destroyed when the upper marine strata originated All the
Parisian groups belong to one great epoch Microscopic shells Bones
of quadrupeds in gypsum In what manner entombed Number of species
All extinct Strata with and without organic remains alternating Our
knowledge of the physical geography, fauna, and flora of the Eocene
period considerable Concluding remarks
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Chapter 19: Volcanic rocks of the Eocene period Auvergne
Igneous formations associated with lacustrine strata Hill of Gergovia
Eruptions in Central France at successive periods Mont Dor an
extinct volcano Velay Plomb du Cantal Train of minor volcanos
stretching from Auvergne to the Vivarais Monts Domes Puy de Cτme
Puy Rouge Ravines excavated through lava Currents of lava at
different heights Subjacent alluviums of distinct ages The more
modern lavas of Central France may belong to the Miocene period The
integrity of the cones not inconsistent with this opinion No eruptions
during the historical era Division of volcanos into ante-diluvian and
post-diluvian inadmissible Theories respecting the effects of the
Flood considered Hypothesis of a partial flood Of a universal deluge
Theory of Dr. Buckland as controverted by Dr. Fleming Recapitulation
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Chapter 20: Eocene formations, continued Basin of the
Cotentin, or Valognes Rennes Basin of Belgium, or the Netherlands
Aix in Provence Fossil insects Tertiary strata of England Basins
of London and Hampshire Different groups Plastic clay and sand
London clay Bagshot sand Fresh-water strata of the Isle of Wight
Palaeotherium and other fossil mammalia of Binstead English Eocene
strata conformable to chalk Outliers on the elevated parts of the
chalk Inferences drawn from their occurrence Sketch of a theory of
the origin of the English tertiary strata
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Chapter 21: Denudation of secondary strata during the
deposition of the English Eocene formations Valley of the Weald
between the North and South Downs Map Secondary rocks of the Weald
divisible into five groups North and South Downs Section across the
valley of the Weald Anticlinal axis True scale of heights Rise and
denudation of the strata gradual Chalk escarpments once sea-cliffs
Lower terrace of 'firestone,' how caused Parallel ridges and valleys
formed by harder and softer beds No ruins of the chalk on the central
district of the Weald Explanation of this phenomenon Double system
of valleys, the longitudinal and the transverse Transverse how formed
Gorges intersecting the chalk Lewes Coomb Transverse valley of the
Adur
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Chapter 22: Denudation of the Valley of the Weald, continued
The alternative of the proposition that the chalk of the North and South
Downs were once continuous, considered Dr. Buckland on the Valley of
Kingsclere Rise and denudation of secondary rocks gradual
Concomitant deposition of tertiary strata gradual Composition of the
latter such as would result from the wreck of the secondary rocks
Valleys and furrows on the chalk how caused Auvergne, the Paris basin,
and south-east of England one region of earthquakes during the Eocene
period Why the central parts of the London and Hampshire basins rise
nearly as high as the denudation of the Weald -- Effects of protruding force
counteracted by the levelling operations of water Thickness of masses
removed from the central ridge of the Weald Great escarpment of the
chalk having a direction north-east and south-west Curved and vertical
strata in the Isle of Wight These were convulsed after the deposition
of the fresh-water beds of Headen Hill Elevations of land posterior to
the crag Why no Eocene alluviums recognizable Concluding remarks on
the intermittent operations of earthquakes in the south-east of England,
and the gradual formation of valleys Recapitulation
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Chapter 23: Secondary formations Brief enumeration of the
principal groups No species common to the secondary and tertiary rocks
Chasm between the Eocene and Maestricht beds Duration of secondary
periods Former continents placed where it is now sea Secondary
fresh-water deposits why rare Persistency of mineral composition why
apparently greatest in older rocks Supposed universality of red marl
formations Secondary rocks why more consolidated Why more fractured
and disturbed Secondary volcanic rocks of many different ages
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Chapter 24: On the relative antiquity of different
mountain-chains Theory of M. Elie de Beaumont His opinions
controverted His method of proving that different chains were raised
at distinct periods His proof that others were contemporaneous His
reasoning why not conclusive His doctrine of the parallelism of
contemporaneous lines of elevation Objections Theory of parallelism
at variance with geological phenomena as exhibited in Great Britain
Objections of Mr. Conybeare How far anticlinal lines formed at the
same period are parallel Difficulties in the way of determining the
relative age of mountains
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Chapter 25: On the rocks usually termed 'Primary' Their
relation to volcanic and sedimentary formations The 'primary' class
divisible into stratified and unstratified Unstratified rocks called
Plutonic Granite veins Their various forms and mineral composition
Proofs of their igneous origin Granites of the same character produced
at successive eras Some of these newer than certain fossiliferous
strata Difficulty of determining the age of particular granites
Distinction between the volcanic and the plutonic rocks Trappean rocks
not separable from the volcanic Passage from trap into granite
Theory of the origin of granite at every period from the earliest to the
most recent
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Chapter 26: On the stratified rocks usually called 'primary'
Proofs from the disposition of their strata that they were originally
deposited from water Alternation of beds varying in composition and
colour Passage of gneiss into granite Alteration of sedimentary
strata by trappean and granitic dikes Inference as to the origin of
the strata called 'primary' Conversion of argillaceous into hornblende
schist The term 'Hypogene' proposed as a substitute for primary
'Metamorphic' for 'stratified primary' rocks No regular order of
succession of hypogene formations Passage from the metamorphic to the
sedimentary strata Cause of the high relative antiquity of the visible
hypogene formations That antiquity consistent with the hypothesis that
they have been produced at each successive period in equal quantities
Great volume of hypogene rocks supposed to have been formed since the
Eocene period Concluding remarks
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Relative Ages of Different Formations
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Deshay's Table of Shells
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General Results
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Fossil Shells Collected by the Author
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Glossary
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Index
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